Goats Behaviour And Welfare

Goats are not like sheep :
The first thing to accept is that  goats  are very different from sheep in their behaviour, and we sometimes forget this when trying to handle them.
The goat is found on all the continents of the world, and is one of man's most important animals as more people in the world eat goat meat than eat sheep meat.
Goat remains 10,000 years old (or of their early ancestors) have been found in central and West Iran, and domestic  goats  existed in other parts of the world for 8,000 years.
Some authorities suggest that  goats  were companion animals long before dogs. The goat has also caused many of the world's deserts through man's ignorance and stupidity resulting in over grazing.
The goat was domesticated early along with sheep and adapted well to man's nomadic lifestyle as well as in established farming.
goats  are a different species to sheep with different numbers of chromosomes (sheep 27 pairs and goat 30 pairs). Hybrids between them are often reported (Geeps or Shoats) but are not viable and don't breed.
Products from  goats  :
Meat : called Chevon
Dairy produce : milk, cheese, yoghurt
Skins : Fibre - mohair, cashmere, cashgora (Cashmere x Angora), and beard hair.
In some cultures they are sacrificed for religious reasons.
Companions and pets.
Goat senses
Sight :
Sight is very similar to sheep (see sheep)
goats  have a similar blind spot at their rear, but they are more difficult to catch using this area as they are generally more alert than sheep and are not blinded by wool on the head and around the eyes.
They can distinguish different colours - responding best to orange and worst to blue.
Hearing :
goats  are very sensitive to a range of sounds from the high pitched squeals of kids to low pitched snorts or foot stamping on the ground.
They have an ability to move their ears to locate the source of sound.
Smell :
Being browsers and highly selective grazers,  goats  have a keen sense of smell which aids in diet selection.
goats  will not eat mouldy or musty feed, and generally avoid poisonous plants unless they are wilted and then are more palatable.
Ingestive  behaviour  ( Grazing , Feeding , Drinking & Rumination ) :
goats  are ruminants but don’t have a split upper lip like sheep so don’t graze as close to the ground as sheep.
goats  are classical browsers and are used by farmers to graze out weeds if no chemical sprays are wanted.
They are effective ruminants relying completely on pasture by about 15 weeks of age when they synchronise their grazing  behaviour  with their dam.
goats  seem to be less concerned about prickly plants suggesting their lips are different to sheep.
They eat a lot of roughage that includes weeds, woody shrubs, leaves and bark. They are well known for ring barking trees. They have been shown to digest cellulose and lignin in plants more efficiently than sheep.
They eat plants from tip down to base - that's why they are so good at killing gorse and thistles and stopping them seeding.
goats  will also stand on their hind legs to reach up high to browse and will use their front legs to hold branches down. They'll even climb trees to get at leaves.
They do not like clover so goat pastures end up being very clover dominant.
Dairy  goats  are fed grain to maintain their production, as they generally cannot eat enough pasture to maintain high yields (around 6Litres per day).
A study of NZ feral  goats  showed they spent 30% of their day feeding with their first period being from dawn to 10.30am, then resting till more grazing from 11am to noon.
Then there was another rest period till a grazing spell from 2.30pm - 3.30 pm followed by another rest spell. The final grazing spell was for 3 hours before sunset.
Of the total feeding period, 34% was grazing and 65% browsing. Ruminating took up 10% of the total time with 46% resting. Most resting took place in winter and least in autumn when mating.
About 12% of the goats' time was spent traveling about 3km/day while grazing or going to water.
They were seen to defaecate 3.4 times/day and urinate 5times/day, but these are very dependent on the diet.
Social  behaviour  :
goats  are a flocking species but they don't flock as tightly as sheep.
Feral  goats  are hard to muster as individuals (especially males) keep breaking back and prefer to escape rather than herd with the mob.
Sheep stick with the mob for safety unlike  goats  that seem to more keen to take a chance on their own.
goats  will herd together better when you get them off their home range. It's a good idea to have some sheep in the goat mob to encourage flocking during mustering.
goats  are a "lying-out" species like cattle and deer which is a big contrast to sheep.
Males join harems of females in autumn and feral bucks will travel up to 20km to find does. But the rest of the year they are in bachelor groups or live as solitary males. They sort out a social order in these groups by bunting and horn wrestling.
So most of the year, an alpha female leads a small family group of females suckling their current kids, with any previous adolescent females still in the group. A dam may suckle a kid till the next one is born.
Younger members of the family or tribe are submissive to higher-ranking females.
As most feral  goats  in NZ have horns, they use these along with head butts to sort out their social status.
In farmed milking goats, you see them bunting and biting each other in the milking bail to sort out their differences, especially in competition for any feed supplements.
At mating the buck is the harem leader and fights off any on-comers. These may be younger lower-ranking males in the group waiting for an opportunity, but the old buck is the boss and does the mating.
Mature bucks sort themselves out by serious head butting, rising on their hind legs to attack with horns and heads. They also use their horns to side-rake their opponents
Climbing and digging :
Goats are remarkable in their ability to climb and can move safely along narrow mountain paths to graze among the rocks.
You often see a roadside goat standing on the ridge of their A-framed shelter.
The contrast between  goats  and sheep is best seen at school pet days, where the goat kids are tested in extra exercises like climbing and walking over a see saw which would be a much greater challenge to a lamb.
This ability can be a problem in farming, as  goats  will climb fence stays to jump over. So electric fencing is necessary to run goats, especially at the high stocking rates needed to make them eat weeds.
Goats will also dig holes below fences to escape. They also like to dig areas to lie in and enjoy the sun's warmth in winter. They do this especially on North facing slopes which then start eroding.
The female (Doe or Nanny) :
goats  are seasonal breeders coming into heat in autumn as daylight declines.
They reach maturity at about 5-6 months old but well-reared milking-breed kids can show heat earlier (4 months) so they have to be watched to avoid too-early mating.
Once the doe starts cycling she will come on heat every 17 days like sheep, and stays on heat for about a day. But these times can vary greatly.
Feral does seem to prefer old mature high-ranking bucks in preference to young ones. But this may be because the old bucks are more aggressive and chase the young ones away.
Signs of oestrus :
Vocalisation - especially if a lone goat.
Urinating a lot - crouched with rear legs set open.
Tail fanning.
Showing aggression to other  goats  and biting them in the milking bail.
Some mounting of other  goats  - or their friendly owner!
The doe is stimulated to cycle and ovulate by the smell of the buck.
Pregnancy in  goats  is about 5 months like sheep.
goats  can show pseudo-pregnancy and it can be a problem mainly in milking herds.
The male (Buck or Billy) :
Male  goats  have a thick beard but so do females so the beard is not stimulated by hormones.
Male  goats  reach puberty about 4-5 months old, but you should not assume that younger males will not be fertile.
Mature males show a definite "rut" period and the first sign of it is when they start to smell strongly. This smell is made worse for humans (and better for does) by the goat spreading a thin jet or urine from his erect penis along the belly, chest and on to his beard.
This is called "enurination" and is seen regularly where bucks are tethered, or when kept separate from does waiting for mating to start. Bucks, especially male goatlings run in groups, can use up so much energy in this activity that it impairs their efficiency when joined with does.
Bucks twist themselves around so they can get their penis into their mouth where the urine stimulates a Flehmen reaction. They will often even masturbate and ejaculate on their bellies and beards - all adding to their aroma which stimulates heat and ovulation in the does.
Does often are very interested in this  behaviour  and stand and watch attentively.
Before mounting, the buck sniffs the doe's side and genital area. He chases her making "gobbling" sounds with his mouth, and flicking his tongue in and out like a ram does.
If the doe urinates he tastes it and gives a Flehmen response. He may have a false mount or two and then a proper mount with ejaculation when he thrusts forward and leaps off the ground.
Following ejaculation - he may lick his penis, and show a Flehmen response again.
Doe  behaviour  at birth ( Maternal  behaviour  ) :
Just before birth a doe is often more fretful and nervous.
Feral  goats  will separate from the main group and find a birth site in a quiet sheltered spot but milking  goats  in a herd may not have space to do this.
Near birth the doe will have "bagged up" and may show a mucous discharge from the vulva.
Udder swelling will be much more obvious in milking  goats  than in feral  goats  with smaller udders.
If kept indoors, the doe will paw the bedding and try to make a birth site.
Birth should take about an hour but problems can arise with multiple births as in sheep.
The doe should get up quickly and turn to chew the membranes and lick the kids. The kicking of the kids usually bursts any membranes covering them, but you can get deaths from a piece of membrane left on the nose.
Afterbirths are passed soon after birth but may be delayed for up to four hours. There seem to be fewer problems with retained foetal membranes in  goats  and sheep than in cattle.
The doe recognises its kid first by smell and then by both sound and sight.
Fostering alien kids to does has the same problems as in sheep, and the same tricks are needed to fool the doe. (See sheep behaviour).
Kids  behaviour  at birth ( Neonatal  behaviour  ) :
Once on their feet, kids should start their teat-seeking behaviour.
They nuzzle the doe's side to find some warm bare skin and hopefully with a teat.
Good mothers will stand still and encourage the kid to do this by nuzzling the kids rear end, rather than keep turning head-on to lick it.
Survival depends on getting enough colostrum within the first hours after birth.
Kids do not follow their mothers all the time like lambs so have fewer suckling periods when the doe goes back to feed them.
Cross fostering lambs on  goats  and vice versa highlights this behavioural difference, with lambs on  goats  growing faster than their kid mate as they followed the doe and suckle more. The ewe with a kid kept often loses it as the kid goes to lie on its own.
In the first few weeks after bonding is strong, a doe will go back to its hiding kid and feed it 4-5 times a day. This intense hiding  behaviour  lasts from 3days to several weeks till the kids are eating pasture when they follow their dams more.
Dairy kids are kept in mobs and fed on milk replacer diets where they can feed ad lib, along with supplemented hay and meal.
Disturbance at birth will cause bonding problems, and the doe may take off leaving a twin behind.
There is a high death rate among feral kids and you regularly see a doe with twins at birth with a single a week or so after birth.
With farmed goats, providing shelter is very important for does and kids during the first weeks of life.
During the first weeks, kids will start playing together but will still stay close to their dams. They often climb on their parents' backs and seem to be tolerated.
Kids start to nibble grass by 3 weeks of age, and after 8-9 weeks are very effective ruminants.

Dr Clive Dalton

Cats Behaviour , Problems and Welfare

Origins

Ancestors of domestic  cats  started to live alongside humans as early as 130,000 years ago attracted by vermin and discarded food scraps.
Then when man changed from hunter-gatherer to village resident, the cat became domesticated. DNA evidence now shows  cats  can be traced to the Eastern Mediterranean and Persian Gulf (the Fertile Crescent) to five female ancestors. These “founding felines” came from a wild cat Felis libyca, still found in remote deserts of the Middle East.
There are records of domesticated  cats  in ancient Egypt about 3500 years ago, where the cat was hunted for food and skins, and then encouraged to enter the human family for these reasons.
It fitted easily into the human family hierarchy.
It then developed religious significance in human society.
cats  are very reward-seeking which always appealed to humans as well as their aloofness.
Pest control was also a major reason for man keeping cats.

Modern cats

There's a vast range of breeds, and there are breeders increasing new genetic types all the time as there is big money in being the exclusive owner of a new type of cat.
We refer to "domesticated cats" or those that live in close association with man.
Then there are "farm cats" that are domesticated but not keen on close human contact.
"Feral cats" are those that have escaped from domestication and are fearful of human contact.

Social structure

cats  are "reward-seeking" animals and this helps in developing a social hierarchy.
cats  generally have a loose hierarchy - not as structured as dogs.
They time share areas in their territory.
Generally entire males are most dominant, followed by entire females, then spayed females and neutered males.
Most wild  cats  live solitary lives, but they can also live happily as part of a group.
Most domestic  cats  do the same but they have bonded owners to live with.
The "mother-kitten" relationship is the basis of group development. The female kittens stay on with mum while the males leave to set up territories and go solitary.
Some males are happy to stay in a single family group or they may move between groups.
A social group of females allows for synchrony of oestrus and mutual care including cross suckling of kittens.
Social structure becomes more defined and competitive when food is scarce, or where there is a limited amount of shelter.
Remember there is a lot of individual variation between  cats  due to genetics and early environment.

Cats and territory

Cats are territorial predators, which has important implications for modern humans.
They have a home range that they routinely check out daily to hunt and explore.
Home ranges of  cats  can overlap resulting in conflict and savage fights.
Tom  cats  have large territories that can cover around 1 km in all directions for their den (home). But this depends on other Toms in the area and where there are few, a Tom may extend his territory to much greater size.
Male  cats  know when they are not welcome in a strange area - note their stealth when they visit your property during a mating season.
In their home range they have all they need - food source, shelter, social contact, urination and defaecation areas.
They scent mark their range by clawing objects and spray urinating, and will protect it against intruders.
Once established - this marking routine may provide an expression of security (marking in the house).
Spraying. Urine contains glandular secretions so spraying is like leaving their CV around. It denoted gender, age, hormonal state and general health.
Middening.  cats  normally bury their faeces but they sometimes deliberately leave them on the surface to add scent to their territory, especially if they sense a challenge.
Clawing. This is used as a visual sign but also leaves odours from the glands from the pedal (foot) glands.
Nose rubbing.  cats  rub their cheeks on twigs (and their owners) to leave odours from their cheek glands.
Hunting the territory occurs mainly at dawn and dusk - they tend to be active only in short bursts.  cats  are incapable of sustained effort.
Cats are excellent climbers, and can handle falling in emergencies. They can swim when forced to, but it's not a preferred mode of transport.
Territory becomes a problem in cages but  cats  can survive together, even including Toms. But it needs skilled observation.
They can act in an "indifferent" mode to each other, as long as they have enough personal space above ground. The floor is used on a time-share basis.

Vision

Kittens are born nearly blind and their eyes open at 7-10 days old (range from 2-16 days).
So touch and physical contact are very important to cats. This has big implications for humans and is widely exploited to the benefit of both cat and owner.
cats  can see colour but with limited perception. They have better colour vision than dogs.
cats  are creatures of the night and see well in poor light due to the structure of the eye. They can dilate their large pupils.
Each eye has 150-205 degrees peripheral vision, with 90-130 degrees overlap for binocular vision. So they have a total visual field of 250-280 degrees.
cats  cannot focus closer than 75mm - but at that close distance when hunting they use other senses. Their best vision is around 2-6m

Hearing

Kittens are born with poor hearing and start to become normal by 3 weeks.
Cat hears sounds up to 50-85kHz - human upper limit is 18-20 kHz. So they hear about four times better than humans and in the ultrasonic range that we cannot hear.
cats  can also hear higher sounds than dogs.
Their hearing range is very wide - over 10.5 octaves.
cats  have mobile ears allowing rapid response to locate the source of the sound.
They can interpret different wave patterns hitting each ear.
The ear structure is a important in aiding balance when falling

Smell

cats  have a very well developed olfactory system - 1000 times better than humans.
Smell is very important in communication.
cats  recognise the general smell of their home environment and are sensitive to any small changes.
It's important to get the cat used to anything new in the environment as soon as possible - e.g. a new cat or baby.
cats  have a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) on the hard palate which they can use to sense chemicals in aromas. They then show a Flehmen response, baring their teeth and giving a quiet hissing sound - called the "gape response" like the Flehmen in large animals. You see it when they sniff catnip.
Smell governs what a cat will eat so they should avoid blocked noses.
A cat's sense of smell is much more developed than in humans.
They can detect small changes in food and you see this if you change a brand of cat meat. They will almost starve before they'll eat the new brand.
Newborn kittens have an acute sense of smell to help them locate teats

Taste

cats  show little response to sweet things but can detect salt, sour and bitter.
They are very sensitive to the taste of water which explain their bizarre  behaviour  of sometimes drinking from muddy pools and fish tanks.
Taste is less important than smell - smell is everything to a cat.
cats  don't taste when hunting prey, only when sink their teeth in after capture.

Touch (Kinaesthetics)

The cat's whole body is very sensitive to touch.
The long outer guard hairs of the coat are especially sensitive.
Hair movement provides information for the cat in its environment, e.g. wind direction to approach prey.
Receptors also are concentrated in the feet pads.
cats  are not very sensitive to heat - can stand up to 52C, e.g. lying beside fire.
They can detect changes of 0.5°C via their noses which they use in hunting.
cats  have very mobile whiskers used for sensing. Whiskers are forward when walking or hunting and back when greeting or sniffing.

Memory and learning

cats  can show some ability to reason and work things out - but it is limited, so make sure you have not been anthropomorphic in drawing conclusions.
The can understand cause and effect - if the interval between each is short.
The have a fair degree of memory retention if reinforced by repeated attempts.
Examples are  cats  that learn to jump up and turn door knobs or work cat doors.
cats  can learn from copying other cats. Kittens learn a wide range of behaviours from their mother, or mothers reinforce inherent behaviours.
More people are now training  cats  to do tricks, apart from the basic needs of house training, and stopping them scratching furniture.

Communication - sound

cats  being very social animals have a well developed communication skills.
They have learned to vocalise a special range of sounds for humans -  cats  don't mew to other cats.
Sixteen different sounds have been recognised that are audible to humans. There are also many which are not audible to us.

Pure calls

Murmur
Growl
Squeak
Hiss
Spit
Teeth chatter

Complex calls

Mew
Moan
Meow

There is also a wide range of tones and meanings - most common are growl/hiss/yowl.
Purring is most commonly known to humans as the sign of a happy cat and is a very typical greeting call. It was a long time before researchers found how the cat did it.
It's caused by rapid contraction of muscles in the larynx when the cat is contented or happy. A cat can sometimes purr when stressed. Purring is used when a mother nurses kittens as a contentment reassuring sound.
The meow has a wide range of tones and it's often easy for owners to interpret some of these sounds.
Oestrus howling has an important courting function, not appreciated by humans or their neighbours during the night!

Communication - body language

Cats use a large amount of non-verbal communication such as:

Body postures
Facial expressions
Eyes, ears, mouth, tail and coat.
They have developed a range of body signals for humans and other cats.
"Friendly and relaxed" - the tail is held out behind or erect and curled slightly forward. The cat will rub itself against things and rub its muzzle on you to transfer scent.
"Passive" - it sits crouched, tail and head down and avoids direct gaze.
"In conflict" - the entire tail twitches or just the end. It is done in association with other signs.
"Offensive threat" - the cat gives you a direct stare and its body is poised for attack. The cat approaches an enemy with sideways motion and prancing steps. This makes the cat look bigger to the enemy.
"Defensive threat" - the back is arched, body fur fluffed up and tail up straight. The chin is drawn in to protect the throat. One paw is raised ready to lash out.
With the eyes, narrow eyes show friendship with the stare being a definite threat.
When the cat turns away from you it can be a sign of disdain or that the relationship in from the cat's viewpoint is OK. If a cat jumps up on you this is also a sign that the cat does not see you as a threat.

Communication - pheromones

These are very important in cat communication.
They are spread around in urine marks, faeces, scratch marks from feet and cheek glands.
They make these marks where they are easy for other  cats  to find.
The higher they scratch the more powerful impression they leave.

Balance and activity

In the first couple of weeks after birth kittens crawl with sideways movements of the head like pups seeking warmth and teats.
It is 7 weeks before they can thermoregulate (control their heat) themselves as they need Mum's heat up to then.
By week 2 they can raise their front end.
By day 17 they can stand and do an awkward walk.
By 6 weeks they can right themselves if they fall over.
cats  show this amazing "righting reflex" when falling as they land on their feet. This is a function of the inner ear, a large cerebellum and the spinal cord.
Kittens are notoriously active and need to be encouraged to play in their socialisation and development.
Mature  cats  reduce activity and spend more than 65% sleeping.
Tom  cats  during the mating season are very active traveling long distances checking out their territory.

Play

Play is an essential part of normal  behaviour  in the cat.
It starts early as soon as kittens are mobile when they spend long periods interacting.
Play teaches the kitten all the movements needed to survive and reproduce as an adult.
Kittens reared in a litter are usually better-adjusted adults than single-reared kittens who only have their parents to play with.
As an individual in a litter, there's a much great chance to learn to prepare and defend yourself against surprise attack, than as a singleton.
A wide range of play moves have been identified:
Scoop, Toss, Grasp,Poke-Bat, Bite-Mouth, Belly up, Stand up, Vertical stand, Pounce, Chase, Side step, Horizontal leap, Face off

Grooming

This is a big feature of  cats  and occupies 30-50% of a cat's waking time.
It also creates problems - fur ball.

Purpose of grooming:

Maintains health of the skin and coat.
Cools the body by evaporation of saliva.
Controls parasites.
"Displacement grooming" is a response to conflict, environmental stress or frustration. It's thought to be a response to reduce anxiety.
"Mutual grooming" is used for social interaction and to show a relaxed state with other cats. Developed from maternal grooming.
"Over grooming" - a problem sometimes started by itchy skin. It can develop into a serious obsession where  cats  become "closet lickers" and are hard to catch at it and stop.

Socialisation

Kittens must be socialised early at between 2-6 weeks. This is a much shorter time span than in dogs.
If they can be handled before their eyes are open, that's all the better.
If kittens are not socialised before weaning (6weeks) then you'll have problems and it will take time to tame them.
Kitten Kindy. This is a new approach by veterinarians to teach people how to socialise their kittens.
At 2-9 weeks provide human contact and handling.
As often as possible before 12 weeks handle kittens and routinely restrain them.
7-12 weeks - provide social play.
After 14 weeks teach them fearful play, and learn to play fight.
Be careful with this "play fight" activity as it can teach them to be over aggressive.
Check the "Scruff test" where you hold the kitten by the scruff of its neck. If they allow this and don't fight of struggle, then they are probably OK.

Nutrition and feeding

cats  are mainly carnivores, but modern cat foods contain some cereals to provide carbohydrates.
cats  eat both day and night whereas dogs only feed during the day.
They are very fussy about what they eat due to their acute sense of smell, and once settled on a brand of cat food they often don't appreciate changes.
In the wild they would probably eat every second day after a hunt.
The principles of nutrition are simple - the cat's nutrient intake should meet its needs. So growing, pregnant and lactating  cats  will need a much higher plane of nutrition than the family cat that sleeps most of the time.
Overfeeding leads to obesity and health problems.
The modern domestic cat is regularly overfed. Owners who go out to work leave an ad lib feeder full of biscuits, or tinned meat in a dish far in excess of what the cat needs. Unless owners see feed left, they think the cat will be hungry and hence starve!
Owners need to discuss feeding their cat with a veterinarian so that it receives a correctly balanced diet which meets its needs - not its wants.

Reproduction

cats  are seasonal breeders and the start of oestrus is stimulated by increasing daylight. They need 12-14 hours of light to get going.
So the breeding season gets into full swing in spring.
Toms also are seasonally active but stud Toms will mate any time. Their maximum fertility is in spring.
Puberty is around 9 months but some breeds will start at 4 months.
cats  can be desexed at 6 months old.
Non pregnant females cycle every18-24 days.
Heat periods last 4 hours if mated and 5-10 days if not.
Ovulation is induced by copulation and it happens 27 hours after copulation.
If they don't conceive after mating they will often have a pseudo pregnancy and won't start cycling again for 36 days.
cats  have litters usually averaging around 4-5 kittens.
Kittens are born blind and with very poor hearing like pups.
Eyes open around 2-3 weeks.
The cat mating ritual is very defined with mock fighting, body contact, and rapid and repeated coitus. It's a very noisy affair that can go on all day.

Desexing (neutering)

Castration of males and spaying females prevents reproduction and all the associated behaviours.
Spraying and fighting may still continue, but this may be brought about by special environmental factors. It may be done away from home range.
The timing of desexing is important - get it done early before 6 months?
It is claimed that no other cat behaviours are affected.

Cat-human bond

Strength of the bond depends on good early socialisation of the cat by a human.
This is then transferable to a new human with time.
A cat may be more bonded to the home and its smells rather than the person - hence the problem of  cats  going back to an old home. The cat needs time to readjust to new environmental smells so keep it shut in for at least a week.
cats  will go for walks with owners and hunt. This is easier in rural areas.
Owners soon learn to interpret certain calls and cat seems to know this.
It is said that there is a stronger interaction between female humans than males with a cat.
It is also said that there is stronger interaction between a cat and an adult than with children.
These interactions are probably just based on food and who in the family feeds the cat regularly.

Cat's interaction with humans

Head butting
Rubbing cheeks on person
Kneading or paddling with feet and claws
Purring
Snuggling under armpit
Enjoying their noses and eyes covered by your cupped hand
If there are a number of  cats  in the house they need vertical space for a good human/cat relationship and will time-share these areas to avoid conflict..

Cat  behaviour  "Problems"

Like dogs-  cats  don't have problems, as they are behaving like cats.

It's the humans who have problems because they forget the domestic contract and the five freedoms, and expect their  cats  to adapt to what they want. This may not be possible or will take some time to achieve.

1. Poor human-cat bond

A strong bond is very important to both human and cat partners.
The bond is formed by good early socialisation and needs constant reinforcing.
Death, divorce and moving house are the three greatest bond breakers.
Surveys show that 50% of humans suffer stress on moving and 50% of  cats  must do also.
Most upset is resolved in 1-2 weeks but some lasts for 3-4 months.
Many people have unrealistic expectations of their cat and they have probably have the wrong species as a pet.

Possible cures/prevention

Socialise all kittens before they are 2-6 weeks old.
Keep reinforcing the bond by regular interaction with the cat.
Rehome the cat with someone with skills to resocialise it, in a different environment.

2. Poor socialisation.

"Nasty cats" (wild, unfriendly and unreliable) for whatever reason have probably not been properly socialised to humans.
Always start here to work out a cat  behaviour  problem.
What happens in the early weeks can have a lifelong effect.
You can fix some problems later, but it will take you time and it will cost the client money.
Some humans are better at taming wild  cats  than others showing a greater empathy and skill.

Possible cures/prevention

Socialise all kittens before they are 2-6 weeks old.
Keep reinforcing the bond by regular interaction with the cat.
Rehome the cat with someone with skills to resocialise it, in a different environment.

3. Infanticide

This is seen in lions when new males oust old ones and they kill all the cubs to bring females on heat quickly and remove all previous males' genetics at the same time.
It is known to happen in domestic  cats  and feral  cats  where Toms will kill young kittens on their rounds if not protected by the mother or owner.
Preventing this is a good reason for desexing non-breeding males, and trapping and euthanasing all stray Toms.

Possible cures/prevention

Desex all males not needed for breeding.
Try to trap and euthanase all stray and feral Toms.

4. Spraying

cats  spray to mark their territory, their home range and any new area.
Once they feel safe, they don't spray.
They are very sensitive to a "general safe smell" of their environment.
It's when their lair is under threat that they may start again.
It happens in both sexed or desexed cats.

Possible reasons?

New adult cat or kitten in the house.
Change of status in group.
Visiting Tom  cats  staking out territory (doormats and car wheels).
New baby in the house.
Neighbours have got new cats.
Bereavement in the house - cat's neglected.
Redecorate and new smells.
Plastic bags from outside with alien smells brought indoors.
Doormat with new footwear smells.
Installation of cat door - outside becomes inside.
Visitors car (with open windows).
Protest spraying - to inform owner cat is unhappy.
Genetics - oriental breeds.

Possible cures/prevention

Find the cause of the anxiety - try to remove it.
Something needs to change - and you need to find out.
Don't punish the cat - or don't be caught doing it.(Try a water pistol).
Confine cat to safe home area - and slowly expand it.
Feed it near where it sprays.
If "protest spray" - rebuild the bond with the cat.
Drugs from vet
Rehome the cat with someone in a different environment.

5. Defaecating

cats  normally bury their faeces. When they don't it's generally deliberate and is called "maddening".
It's another way for  cats  to mark territory.
It happens when  cats  are in panic mode - e.g. if locked in the house or may do it on the bed when owners are on holiday.
Kittens that have been poorly trained by the mother in the nest may develop the habit.
Punishment is not very effective and it must be instantaneous and from afar, so the cat doesn't associate it with you.

Possible cures/prevention

Find the cause of the problem and remove it.
Never rub the cat's nose in the mess. It achieves nothing.
Build up animal's self esteem.
Go back to principles of toilet training.
Feed the cat where it has defaecated
Rehome the cat with someone in a different environment.

6. Toilet training

Kittens are taught by their mothers not to soil their den, so use this principle.
Take the kitten outside on to soil or litter after feeding to encourage elimination.
Put newspaper down where you feed the kitten and gradually extend this "feeding territory" so it will not eliminate there.
Shut off areas where it has started soiling and confine it to approved areas.
Feed the cat where it has eliminated.
Never rub its nose in the mess.
Scratching furniture.
This is partly claw care and has a trimming action.
It's also scent marking from glands in paws.
Used to mark territory.
Done as a dominance gesture, often in presence of other cats.
cats  get cunning and will do it on the beds to avoid reprimand.

Possible cures/prevention

Always be on the watch - think like a cat.
Keep  cats  out when you are out.
Provide a scratching post in house.
Put it in front of the damaged object.
Use a reprimand. It must be instant and from a distance (eg water pistol).
Hitting the cat won't work - don't try it.
Some smell deterrents may work.

7. Attacking other cats

Can vary from the occasional scrap between  cats  in a household, to serious attacks on all  cats  on sight - indoors or outdoors.
This is a natural way to sort out hierarchy and territory.
May be caused by poor social contact between  cats  when young

Possible cures/prevention

Keep aggressive  cats  inside at night.(This will also benefit wildlife).
Reintroduce new  cats  into group gradually in protected cage.
Distraction - bring new  cats  together at feeding time.
Neuter all Toms.
Your vet may recommend hormone treatment for the aggressor.
Euthanasia could be a final option in New Zealand, but take veterinary advice on this. You may be legally liable for any damage your cat causes.
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

8. Attacking people

This is a nasty habit and can be scary and dangerous for the uwary (visitors and kids).
This is usually "play aggression" that gets out of hand.
"Defensive aggression" is caused by poor socialisation.
It may be encouraged by some family members and then others suffer.
It may be "fear aggression" so ignore the cat and allow it escape routes.

Possible cures/prevention

Know the cat's likes and dislikes - and warn guests.
Provide toys and encourage the cat to play with them.
Provide another cat or kitten for it to play with.
Ignore the cat and don't play with it. Tell others of the plan.
Experiment with changing diets.
Don't provide catnip.
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.
Euthanasia may be considered necessary in New Zealand, as you are legally liable for damage. But talk to your veterinarian first.

9. Petting and biting syndrome

It's where the cat allows so many strokes then gives a controlled bite or nip.
Three strokes then a bite are typical, or not allowing certain body parts to be touched.
It is often tolerated by the owner so is not cured.
May get worse with age - could be physical problems.
Certain parts of the body are more sensitive than others - the back end.
It often happens in older  cats  and gets worse with age.
Some  cats  will tolerate adults but not children stroking them.
Can't do much. Leave the cat alone and warn others, especially children.

Possible cures/prevention

Recognise the habit and avoid triggering it.
Warn guests or remove cat when they arrive.
But it may make the cat more cunning when biting.
Talk to vet about drugs.
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

10.Over-grooming and self mutilation

cats  regularly groom their flanks or backs when they are confused, or when upset after a threat.
It seems a displacement  behaviour  resulting from anxiety or stress.
It can get out of hand and is difficult to stop.

Possible cures/prevention

Check for any problems of the skin.
Protect the affected skin area - cat will probably shift attention to another.
Check for diet allergies.
Find the cause of the distress and remove it.
Provide toys for stimulation.
Reduce the number of  cats  in the house.
Don't punish the cat for other offences - fix those problems first.
Treat with drugs for anxiety.
There may be no cure if it becomes serious, but take veterinary advice before considering euthanasia.
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

11. Hair ball

This is a problem of long-haired breeds that are not regularly groomed.
This is a very common feature of cats.
It's not a problem until they come into the house from the garden to be sick.
Thought to be a means of assisting digestion.

Possible cures/prevention

Make sure grooming is adequate and the animal is kept clean.

12.Pica

This is the eating or sucking of a wide range of non-nutritional items and can cause health problems.
Sucking and kneading wool items is most common.
It's thought to be need for dietary fibre, a depraved maternal  behaviour  snuggling up to dam's belly or natural trait of prey catching/eating.
It often occurs in  cats  weaned too young.
Severe stress can trigger it.
Poor early socialisation is a likely cause.
Some breeds are worse than others, eg Siamese.

Possible cures/prevention

Provide toys to increase stimulation.
Check diet for fibre.
Try aversion tactics - water pistol, or noise.
Provide favourite fabrics to save others.
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

13. Eating plants

Thought to be a nutritional deficiency.
The cat often knocks the plant over and breaks the pot in the process, adding to the problem.

Possible cures/prevention

Remove the problem materials from cat's environment.
Try different diets
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

14. Thieving

cats  have an inquisitive nature so this habit can be a self gratifying experience.
It can be part of pica syndrome - stealing favourite items to eat.
It's part of the  behaviour  of bringing kill back to the den for the tribe.

Possible cures/prevention

There is little point in chasing it to get it back - you add to the fun.
Try to remove the opportunity for the cat to steal things.
Completely ignore it when it brings items home
Rehome the cat with someone with cat skills, in a different environment.

Cats in modern society - the 5th freedom

Changes are coming in man's relationship with the domestic cat in New Zealand.
We have a love/hate relationship with  cats  as we do with dogs, but  cats  are inherent hunters and it's now being realised the effect their hunting as on our endangered native wildlife - as it has done in Australia.
The average age of a cat in modern society is 3.5 years. Euthanasia is the main cause of death. Thousands of kittens are euthanased each year.
Just about every family in NZ has a pet dog or cat and many have both.  cats  are more popular than dogs and are easier to get and dispose of (legally or illegally).
Hundreds of thousands of  cats  are euthanased each year and Christmas is the peak time for this being the peak kitten season.
The SPCA struggle to get the message across about desexing and "pets are not just for Christmas".
There are now plenty of data now to show how much wildlife the average domestic "moggy" cleans up in a year. It is in the region of 20 birds/year.
DOC in New Zealand are having a big campaign against the cat.
Some people are very upset about this, blaming owners for irresponsible cat care.
There is no  Welfare  code for  cats  but this will be done sometime.
Australia has brought in rules against  cats  in some areas where they must now be confined.
"Keep your cat inside at night" will have to be the catch cry for future.
New Zealand will have to face this in future as public concern and sympathy changes towards our native fauna - the impact of TV is massive. There are changes ahead for the Kiwi moggy with cat-free areas being accepted.
Desexing feral  cats  releasing them back into the environment is a crazy idea.

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Glycolysis Process

The Glycolytic pathway describes the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate with the generation of ATP and NADH

• It is also called as the Embden-Meyerhof Pathway

• glycolysis is a universal pathway; present in all organisms: from yeast to mammals.

• In eukaryotes, glycolysis takes place in the cytosol

• glycolysis is anaerobic; it does not require oxygen

• In the presence of O2, pyruvate is further oxidized to CO2. In the absence of O2, pyruvate can be fermented to lactate or ethanol.

• Net Reaction: Glucose + 2NAD+ + 2 Pi + 2 ADP = 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H2O

The 3 stages of Glycolysis

• Stage 1 is the investment stage. 2 mols of ATP are consumed for each mol of glucose

• Glucose is converted to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.

• Glucose is trapped inside the cell and at the same time converted to an unstable form that can be readily cleaved into 3-carbon units.

• In stage 2 fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is cleaved into 2 3- carbon units of glycerladehyde-3-phosphate.

• Stage 3 is the harvesting stage. 4 mols of ATP and 2 mols of NADH are gained from each initial mol of glucose. This ATP is a result of substrate-level phosphorylation

• Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to pyruvate

Step-wise reactions of glycolysis

• Reaction 1: Phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6 phosphate.

• This reaction requires energy and so it is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi.

• Enzyme: hexokinase. It has a low Km for glucose; thus, once glucose enters the cell, it gets phosphorylated.

• This step is irreversible. So the glucose gets trapped inside the cell. (Glucose transporters transport only free glucose, not phosphorylated glucose)

• Reaction 2: Isomerization of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose 6- phosphate. The aldose sugar is converted into the keto isoform.

• Enzyme: phosphoglucomutase.

• This is a reversible reaction. The fructose-6-phosphate is quickly consumed and the forward reaction is favored.

• Reaction 3: is another kinase reaction. Phosphorylation of the hydroxyl group on C1 forming fructose-1,6- bisphosphate.

• Enzyme: phosphofructokinase. This allosteric enzyme regulates the pace of glycolysis.

• Reaction is coupled to the hydrolysis of an ATP to ADP and Pi.

• This is the second irreversible reaction of the glycolytic pathway.

• Reaction 4: fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into 2 3-carbon molecules, one aldehyde and one ketone: dihyroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP).

• The enzyme is aldolase.

• Reaction 5: DHAP and GAP are isomers of each other and can readily inter-convert by the action of the enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase.

• GAP is a substrate for the next step in glycolysis so all of the DHAP is eventually depleted. So, 2 molecules of GAP are formed from each molecule of glucose

• Upto this step, 2 molecules of ATP were required for eachmolecule of glucose being oxidized

• The remaining steps release enough energy to shift the balance sheet to the positive side. This part of the glycolytic pathway is called as the payoff or harvest stage.

• Since there are 2 GAP molecules generated from each glucose, each of the remaining reactions occur twice for each glucose molecule being oxidized.

• Reaction 6: GAP is dehydrogenated by the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH). In the process, NAD+ is reduced to NADH + H+ from NAD.

Oxidation is coupled to the phosphorylation of the C1 carbon. The product is 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

• Reaction 7: BPG has a mixed anhydride, a high energy bond, at C1. This high energy bond is hydrolyzed to a carboxylic acid and the energy released is used to generate ATP from ADP. Product: 3-phosphoglycerate. Enzyme: phosphoglycerate kinase.

• Reaction 8: The phosphate shifts from C3 to C2 to form 2- phosphoglycerate. Enzyme:phosphoglycerate mutase.

• Reaction 9: Dehydration catalyzed by enolase (a lyase). A water molecule is removed to form phosphoenolpyruvate which has a double bond between C2 and C3.

• Reaction 10: Enolphosphate is a high energy bond. It is hydrolyzed to form the enolic form of pyruvate with the synthesis of ATP. The irreversible reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate kinase. Enol pyruvate quickly changes to keto pyruvate which is far more stable.

Glycolysis: Energy balance sheet

• Hexokinase: - 1 ATP

• Phosphofructokinase: -1 ATP

• GAPDH: +2 NADH

• Phsophoglycerate kinase: +2 ATP

• Pyruvate kinase: +2 ATP

Total/ molecule of glucose: +2 ATP, +2 NADH

Fate of Pyruvate

• NADH is formed from NAD+ during glycolysis.

• The redox balance of the cell has to be maintained for further cycles of glycolysis to continue.

• NAD+ can be regenerated by one of the following reactions /pathways:

• Pyruvate is converted to lactate

• Pyruvate is converted to ethanol

• In the presence of O2, NAD+ is regenerated by ETC. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA which enters TCA cycle and gets completely oxidized to CO2.

Lactate Fermentation

• Formation of lactate catalyzed by lactate dehydrogenase:

CH3-CO-COOH + NADH + H+

CH3-CHOH-COOH + NAD+

• In highly active muscle, there is anaerobic glycolysis because the supply of O2 cannot keep up with the demand for ATP.

• Lactate builds up causing a drop in pH which inactivates glycolytic enzymes. End result is energy deprivation and cell death; the symptoms being pain and fatigue of the muscle.

• Lactate is transported to the liver where it can be reconverted to pyruvate by the LDH reverse reaction

Ethanol fermentation

• Formation of ethanol catalyzed by 2 enzymes

• Pyruvate decarboxylase catalyzes the first irreversible reaction to form acetaldehyde: CH3-CO-COOH CH3-CHO + CO2

• Acetaldehyde is reduced by alcohol dehydogenase is a reversible reaction:

CH3-CHO + NADH + H+ CH3CH2OH + NAD+

• Ethanol fermentation is used during wine-making

• Fructose is phosphorylated by fructokinase (liver) or hexokinase (adipose) on the 1 or 6 positions resp.

• Fructose-6-phosphate is an intermediate of glycolysis.

• Fructose-1-phosphate is acted upon by an aldolase-like enz that gives DHAP and glyceraldehyde.

• DHAP is a glycolysis intermediate and glyceraldehyde can be phosphorylated to glyceraldehyde-3-P.

• Glycerol is phosphorylated to G-3-P which is then converted to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate.

• Galactose has a slightly complicated multi-step pathway for conversion to glucose-1-phosphate.

• If this pathway is disrupted because of defect in one or more enz involved in the conversion of gal to glc-1-P, then galactose accumulates in the blood and the subject suffers from galactosemia which is a genetic disorder, an inborn error of metabolism.

Entry of other sugars into glycolysis

Regulation of Glycolysis

Enzyme Activator

Hexokinase AMP/ADP

Phosphofructokinase AMP/ADP,

Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate

Pyruvte kinase AMP/ADP

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

Enzyme Inhibitor

Hexokinase Glucose-6-phosphate

Phosphofructokinase ATP, Citrate

Pyruvate kinase ATP, Acetyl CoA, Alanine

Regulation of Hexokinase

• Hexokinase catalyzed phosphorylation of glucose is the first irreversible step of glycolysis

• Regulated only by excess glucose-6-phosphate. If G6P accumulates in the cell, there is feedback inhibition of hexokinase till the G6P is consumed.

• Glucose-6-phosphate is required for other pathways including the pentose phosphate shunt and glycogen synthesis. So hexokinase step is not inhibited unless G-6-P accumulates. (no regulation by downstream intermediates / products of metabolism)

• Actually, liver, the site of glycogen synthesis, has a homologous enzyme called glucokinase. This has a high KM for glucose. This allows brain and muscle to utilize glucose prior to its storage as glycogen

Regulation of Phosphofructokinase

• The phosphofructokinase step is rate-limiting step of glycolysis.

• High AMP/ADP levels are activators of this enzyme, while high ATP levels are inhibitory (energy charge). In addition,

• Feed-back inhibition by Citrate, an intermediate of the TCA cycle.

• A major positive effector of phosphofructokinase is Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate. F-2,6-BP is formed by the hormone-stimulated phosphoylation of F-6-P. Thus, this is an example of allosteric feed-forward activation

Formation of Fructose-2,6-bisphosphate

• Concentration of F-2,6-BP is regulated by the action of phosphofructokinase 2 (PFK2) and fructose bisphosphatase 2 (FBPase2).

• Both enzymes are distinct domains of the same polypeptide

• When glucose levels are low, glucagon levels are high (insulin and glucagon have opposing functions). PKA is activated, which in turn inactivates PFK2 by phosphorylation. At the same time FBPase2 is activated. F-2,6-BP is converted to F-6-P which enters gluconeogensis for synthesis of glucose. In the absence of F-2,6-BP, PFK is not activated and glycolysis pauses

• When glucose levels are high, glucagon levels are low. PKA is inactive but a phosphatase dephosphorylates PFK2 and activates it. PFK2 converts F-6-P to F-2,6-BP which is a allosteric activator of PFK, the glycolytic enzyme.

Regulation of pyruvate kinase

• If glycolysis gets past the phosphofructokinase step, then regulation is at the pyruvate kinase step.

• Pyruvate kinase activity is inhibited under low glucose conditions by covalent phosphorylation

• If fructose 1,6 bisphosphate is formed, it acts a allosteric feedforward activator and drives the pyruvate kinase reaction forward.

• Other positive effectors are AMP and ADP while ATP is a negative effector.

• Alanine, an aminoacid derived from pyruvate, is a negative effector of catabolism. Alanine levels signal the anabolic state of a cell. High alanine levels indicate that the cell has enough starting material for anabolic reactions and so catabolism (which provides the ingredients for anabolism) can be paused.

Gluconeogenesis

• Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors including pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and aminoacids

• In animals the gluconeogenesis pathway is, for the most part, the reverse of glycolysis. There are substitute or bypass reactions for the irreversible steps of glycolysis.

• Glycerol enters reverse glycolysis as DHAP by the action of glycerol kinase followed by dehydrogenase

• Lacate is converted to pyruvate by LDH. Aminoacids are converted to either pyruvate or oxaloacetate prior to gluconeogenesis.

Bypass for Puruvate Kinase

• Three steps of glycolysis are irreversible and therefore need bypass reactions for gluconeogenesis.

• Pyruvate to PEP: Pyruvate synthesized by glycolysis or from aa is in the mitochondria. Here, pyruvate is first converted to oxaloacetate by the enzyme pyruvate carboxylase. One carbon is supplied by CO2 to form the 4-C oxaloacetate. The reaction is coupled to ATP hydrolysis making this a ligation reaction.

• Oxaloacetate is shuttled out to the cytoplasm where the glycolytic enzymes are located. Oxaloacetate is converted to PEP by the enzyme PEP carboxykinase. CO2 is removed and energy in the form of GTP is utilized.

• Two high energy molecules with a total free energy change of 62 kJ/mol are used up for the formation of PEP. This is consistent with the free energy change for hydrolysis of the enoyl phosphate bond.

Bypass for PFK and Hexokinase.

• PEP can be converted to fructose-1,6 bisphosphate by reverse glycolysis.

• F-1-6 BP to F-6-P cannot proceed by reverse glycolysis since the PFK reaction is irreversible.

• Instead a different enzyme called as fructose-1,6 bisphosphatase is used. This removes the P from the 1 position. However, no ATP is formed.

• Further reverse glycolysis leads to formation of glucose-6-P

• This is converted to Glc by the action of glc-6-phosphatase since the hexokinase reaction is irreversible.

• Net Reaction for gluconeogenesis:

• 2 pyruvate + 4 ATP + 2 GTP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 6 H2O glucose + 2 NAD+ + 4 ADP + 2 GDP + 6 Pi.

• (Net reaction for glycolysis is: Glucose + 2NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H2O)

Regulation of Gluconeogenesis

• Fructose 1-6-bisphosphatase is co-ordinately regulated with phosphofructokinase. Thus, citrate is a positive effector and AMP and F-2,6-BP are negative effectors.

• When glucose levels are high, F-2,6-BP is high and gluconeogenesis is inhibited while glycolysis is favored. When glucose levels are low, F-2,6-BP is low and glycolysis is inhibited.

• Pyruvate carboxylase is an imp regulatory step in gluconeogenesis. Acetyl CoA and ATP are positive effectors while AMP/ADP are inhibitors

• glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are regulated by hormones. Insulin stimulates synthesis and activity of glycolytic enzymes while glucagon turns on gluconeogenic enzymes.

Substrate cycle or Futile cycle

• A pair of non-reversible reactions that cycle between two substrates are called as a substrate cycle

• In such a cycle, there is expense of ATP without a coupled biosynthetic reaction, thus, it is also called as a futile cycle

• Eg: F-6-P + ATP (PFK)F-1,6-BP + ADP F-1,6-BP + H2O FBPaseF-6-P + Pi

• Net: ATP + H2O ADP + Pi + energy (heat)

• Level of substrate cycling is very minimal because of reciprocal regulation of the enzymes

• Certain organisms utilize such reactions to maintain body temperature

Cori Cycle

• Lactate is formed in the active muscle to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so that glycolysis can continue.

• The muscle cannot spare NAD+ for re-conversion of lactate back to pyruvate.

• Thus, lactate is transported to the liver, where, in the presence of oxygen, it undergoes gluconeogenesis to form glucose.

• The glucose is supplied by the liver to various tissues including muscle.

• This inter-organ cooperation during high muscular activity is called as the Cori cycle.

The Structure and Function of the Digestive System of Animals

Digestive system is uniquely constructed to perform its specialized function of turning food into the energy you need to survive and packaging the residue for waste disposal..

Mouth

The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract; and, in fact, digestion starts here when taking the first bite of food. Chewing breaks the food into pieces that are more easily digested, while saliva mixes with food to begin the process of breaking it down into a form your body can absorb and use.

Esophagus

Located in throat near trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from mouth when swallowing. By means of a series of muscular contractions called peristalsis, the esophagus delivers food to the stomach.

 

Stomach

The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with enzymes that continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the stomach are sufficiently processed, they are released into the small intestine.

simple stomach of Horse

 

Compound stomach of Cattle

 

Small intestine

Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also is at work in this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive secretions from the pancreas and liver. The duodenum is largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down process, with the jejunum and ileum mainly responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid, and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water, bile, enzymes, and mucous contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.

Pancreas

The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. These enzymes break down protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The pancreas also makes insulin, secreting it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone for metabolizing sugar.

Liver
The liver has multiple functions, but its main function within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat. In addition, the liver is the body’s chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function. The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs.

Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and then releases it into the duodenum to help absorb and digest fats.

Colon  .. large intestine
The colon is a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum. The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum. The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum. The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day. It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination.

Rectum
The rectum (Latin for "straight") is an 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. It is the rectum's job to receive stool from the colon, to let the person know that there is stool to be evacuated, and to hold the stool until evacuation happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then decides if the rectal contents can be released or not. If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed, the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.

Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is specialized to detect rectal contents. It lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas, or solid. The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it is not supposed to. The internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. It keeps us continent when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool. When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet, where it then relaxes to release the contents.

Control of The Gastric Secretions

as it displayed

Control of gastric secretions occur in 3 phases :

1 -
Cephalic Phase

2 - 

Gastric Phase

3 -

Intestinal Phase

 

 

 

 

  

Vitamins ( Importance , Defecience & Toxicity Signs )

Vitaminsare organic substances that must be provided in small quantities by the environment (usually the diet) and are generally classified in two categories: the water-soluble and the fat-soluble vitamins. These small organic molecules cannot be made in adequate amounts by the body but are required for normal metabolism.

Water Soluble Vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins consist of members of the vitamin B complex and vitamin C. They are generally found together in the same foods with the exception of B12 which is present only in meat and dairy foods. The others are found in whole grain cereals, legumes, leafy green vegetables, and fruits. The water-soluble vitamins generally function to assist the activity of important enzymes such as those involved in the production of energy from carbohydrates and fats. They are often referred to as "cofactors". Other roles may be defined with further research. The water-soluble vitamins are not stored to a great extent in the body so frequent consumption is necessary. When present in excess of the body's needs, they are excreted in the urine. Because they are readily excreted, they are generally non-toxic, although symptoms have been reported in some individuals taking megadoses of niacin, vitamin C or pyridoxine. The lack of water soluable vitamins most greatly affects tissues that are growing or metabolizing rapidly such as skin, blood, the digestive tract and nervous system. These molecules present in fruit, vegetables and grains are all unstable in the presence of heat so that processing and cooking methods can greatly affect the amount of vitamin actually available in food.

Vitamin B Complex – The vitamin B complex is traditionally made up of 10 members (listed below) that differ in their biological actions, although many participate in energy production from carbohydrates and fats. They were grouped together into a single class because they were initially isolated from the same sources, liver and yeast.

Thiamine (Vitamin B1) is important for energy metabolism and in the initiation of nerve impulses. A deficiency of thiamine causes a condition known as beriberi. In certain parts of the world where the diet consists largely of polished rice, this condition is frequently seen. In these countries, a deficiency in mothers can cause a deficiency in infants and may lead to death. In the US, thiamine deficiency is most commonly seen in alcoholics, although it can occur in the presence of several diseases. Pregnancy increases thiamine requirements slightly and when a pregnancy is associated with a prolonged period of vomiting and/or poor food intake, thiamine deficiency may result.

The major symptoms of the deficiency are related to the nervous system (i.e. sensory disturbances, muscle weakness, impaired memory) and the heart (i.e. shortness of breath, palpitations, and heart failure). Wernicke’s syndrome is a serious complication of alcoholism and thiamine deficiency that may manifest as impaired muscle coordination, impaired ability to move the eyes, and marked confusion. It may lead to Korsakoff’s psychosis, a chronic disorder in which memory and learning are impaired.

Thiamine is used to treat thiamine deficiency. There are many unproven uses of thiamine including a treatment for poor appetite, canker sores, motion sickness, poor memory, fatigue and as an insect repellant. The RDA for women over 18 years is 1.1 mg; for pregnant women, 1.4 mg; for lactating women, 1.5 mg; and for men over 14 years, 1.2 mg

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) is important in promoting the release of energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins. It also aids in maintaining the integrity of red blood cells. Riboflavin deficiency can occur most frequently in people with long-standing infections, liver disease, and alcoholism. A sore throat and sores at the corners of the mouth are generally the first symptoms of a deficiency. This can be followed by a swollen tongue, seborrheic dermatitis, anemia and impaired nerve function. These manifestations are commonly seen in other diseases, including many vitamin deficiencies. The RDA for women over 18 years is 1 mg; for pregnant women, 1.4 mg; for lactating women, 1.6 mg, and for men over 14 years, 1.3 mg.

A deficit of cellular energy metabolism may play a role in migraine headaches. A recent study indicated that high-dose (400 mg/day) riboflavin was effective in decreasing the frequency of migraines. Further studies are needed to confirm this effect. High dose riboflavin can cause a yellow-orange fluorescence or discoloration of the urine.

Nicotinic acid (Niacin, Vitamin B3) is important for the release of energy from carbohydrates and fats, the metabolism of proteins, making certain hormones, and assisting in the formation of red blood cells. Niacin deficiency causes pellagra, a condition that affects the skin (dermatitis), GI tract (i.e. diarrhea, nausea, vomiting and swollen tongue) and nervous system. (i.e. headache, depression, impaired memory, hallucinations and dementia). Frequent causes of a deficiency include a poor diet, isoniazid therapy (used in the treatment of tuberculosis) and carcinoid tumors. Rarely a deficiency can occur in the presence of hyperthyroidism, diabetes mellitus, cirrhosis, pregnancy or lactation.

Dietary niacin and niacin formed within the body from the amino acid tryptophan are converted to niacinamide. Niacinamide (nicotinamide) is the biologically active form of niacin and it may be preferred as a supplement because it lacks the flushing effects of niacin. The RDA for women over 14 years is 14 mg; for pregnant women, 18 mg; for lactating women, 17 mg; and for men over 14 years, 16 mg.

Niacin is used for the treatment of niacin deficiency but at large doses is also used to treat high cholesterol and triglycerides. High doses should only be taken under the supervision of a physician because there is a risk of developing serious side effects such as liver dysfunction. There are also several medical conditions that may be worsened by its use at the high, therapeutic doses. It can cause the release of histamine resulting in increased gastric acid, therefore it is generally not used in the presence of an active peptic ulcer. Large amounts can also decrease uric acid excretion, possibly precipitating a gout attack in people predisposed to this condition, and it can impair glucose tolerance, interfering with blood sugar control in diabetics. In the treatment of high cholesterol the simultaneous use of niacin with drugs that inhibit cholesterol formation, known as the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (i.e. Lipitor®, Baycol®, Mevacor®, Zocor® and Pravachol®) increases the occurrence of serious muscle disorders.

Due to common side effects (flushing, nausea, dizziness, itching, low blood pressure), many people do not tolerate high doses of niacin, even though some may lessen in intensity with continued usage.

Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) is necessary for the proper function of over 60 enzymes that participate in amino acid metabolism. It is also involved in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. A deficiency in adults mainly affects the skin (seborrhea-like lesions around the eyes, nose and mouth), mucous membranes, peripheral nerves and blood forming system. Convulsive seizures may also occur. Deficiencies can manifest in people with kidney disease, cirrhosis, alcoholism, impaired gastrointestinal absorption (malabsorption), congestive heart failure and hyperthyroidism.

The RDA for pyridoxine in women from 19-50 years of age is 1.3 mg; women over 50 years, 1.5 mg; for pregnant women, 1.9 mg; for lactating women, 2 mg; for men 14 to 50 years of age, 1.3 mg; and for men over 50 years, 1.7 mg. Prolonged doses in excess of 200 mg. per day have been associated with neurotoxicity. Pyridoxine may be effective in lowering high levels of homocysteine, a risk factor for heart disease, decreasing the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, as an adjunct to other treatments for improving behavior in autism, and for reversing some of the side effects of flurouracil in cancer patients. It is also used in treating some metabolic disorders.

Several drugs can increase the pyridoxine requirement, such as hydralazine, isoniazid and oral contraceptives. Simultaneous use of pyridoxine with amiodarone can increase the risk of drug-induced sensitivity to sunlight, and pyridoxine can decrease the effects of phenytoin and phenobarbital.

Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) is the precursor to coenzyme A that is vital for the metabolism of carbohydrates, the synthesis and degradation of fats, the synthesis of sterols and the resultant steroid hormones, and the synthesis of many other important compounds. A deficiency has not been seen in humans on a normal diet because it is so widely distributed in foods, however it is often included in multivitamin preparations.

There is insufficient information to establish RDAs for pantothenic acid. The Committee on Dietary Allowances provides provisional recommendations for adults of 4 to 7 mg. per day.

Folic acid (Vitamin B9) plays a major role in cellular metabolism including the synthesis of some of the components of DNA. It is necessary for normal red blood cell formation and adequate intake can reduce damage to DNA.

Folic acid deficiency is a common complication of diseases of the small intestine that interfere with the absorption of folic acid from food and the recycling of folic acid from the liver back to the intestines. Alcoholism can result in folic acid deficiency. Folic acid activity can also be reduced by several drugs including large doses of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), methotrexate, trimethoprim, cholestyramine, isoniazid, and triamterene. The simultaneous ingestion of folic acid supplements may, in theory, interfere with the effectiveness of methotrexate cancer treatments, however their combined use in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis has resulted in lessened side effects from methotrexate.

Although the anemia that results from folic acid deficiency is not distinguishable than that resulting from B12 deficiency, folic acid deficiency is rarely associated with neurological abnormalities (see Vitamin B12). Excessive doses of folic acid may mask the anemia that results from B12 deficiency, preventing diagnosis of the deficiency and allowing progression of neurological damage.

Adequate folic acid intake is associated with a reduced risk of neural tube birth defects. It is recommended that all women of childbearing age consume at least 400 micrograms of folic acid each day. Folic acid supplements are also used to lower elevated homocysteine levels, a known risk factor for heart disease. Recent studies have suggested that folic acid supplements may be effective in lowering the risk of colon cancer. Topical folic acid formulations are used for gingival hyperplasia that result from phenytoin therapy and for gingivitis associated with pregnancy.

The RDA for folic acid for adults over 13 years, 400 micrograms; for pregnant women, 600 micrograms; and lactating women, 500 micrograms.

Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) is important for the proper functioning of many enzymes involved in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, synthesis of the insulating sheath around nerve cells, cell reproduction, normal growth and red blood cell formation. It is essential for proper folic acid utilization. A deficiency results in anemia, gastrointestinal lesions and nerve damage. Many drugs can interfere with the absorption of vitamin B12 including drugs commonly used to treat ulcers (such as cimetidine, omeprazole), and drugs used to treat seizures (such as phenytoin and phenobarbital).

A protein called intrinsic factor is secreted by the stomach and is required for vitamin B12 absorption from the lower part of the small intestine. Signs of B12 deficiency often occur in the presence of adequate B12 intake, but result from impaired absorption. Conditions that are associated with this include some gastric surgeries, pancreatic disorders, bacterial overgrowth or intestinal parasites, and damage to the intestinal cells.

The RDA for vitamin B12 for adults is 2.4 micrograms; for pregnant women, 2.6 micrograms; and for lactating women, 2.8 micrograms. Approximately 10 to 30% of people over 50 years of age have difficulty absorbing food-bound vitamin B12, so they should eat foods fortified with the vitamin or take a supplement.

Vitamin B12 and folic acid have a close relationship. A deficiency in either one results in abnormal synthesis of DNA in any cell in which cell division is taking place. Tissues such as the blood forming system are most severely affected, therefore an early sign of deficiency of either vitamin is a type of anemia termed megaloblastic anemia.

Choline is traditionally not a vitamin, however it was identified as part of the vitamin B complex and has several important functions. Choline is a component of many biological membranes and fat transport molecules in the blood. It is able to stimulate the removal of excess fat from the liver. Choline serves as the precursor to many substances including a the transmitter of the parasympathetic nervous system, acetylcholine. Some athletes use choline to delay muscle fatigue because acetylcholine is involved in muscle contraction, but this effect has not been proven. A deficiency is uncommon except among people receiving long-term IV nutrition. It is added to infant formulas to approximate the amount found in human milk.

The Daily Reference Intake (DRI) is 550 mg for adult males and lactating females; 425 mg for adult females; and 450 mg for pregnant females. Oral choline supplements have not been proven to be effective in treating memory loss, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia and schizophrenia.

Inositol is an important part of cell membranes and is part of a signaling mechanism that transmits information from the outside to the inside of cells. Some evidence suggests it participates in the movement of fat out of the liver and intestinal cells, and that it may reverse desensitization of serotonin receptors, however this remains to be confirmed. Although it may be effective in treating panic disorders, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorders, these uses remain to be verified.

A dietary need for inositol has not been established, probably due to its production by gut bacteria, the existence of tissue stores following absorption from food, and possible synthesis in some organs. It may be added to infant formulas to approximate the content of human milk.

Biotin has an important role in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. It can be synthesized by gut bacteria and recycled. A deficiency rarely occurs in humans. If raw egg whites are consumed in large quantities, a biotin deficiency can occur. Signs of a deficiency include dermatitis, muscle pain, loss of appetite, slight anemia, an inflamed tongue, and weakness. There is no RDA for biotin.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) has many important functions in the body. It is a powerful antioxidant, protecting against oxidative damage to DNA, membrane lipids and proteins. It is involved in the synthesis of numerous substances such as collagen, certain hormones and transmitters of the nervous system, lipids and proteins. It is necessary for proper immune function, a fact that has led many to use vitamin C to prevent or treat colds, although this has not been supported by current studies. It may, however, shorten or reduce the severity of a cold.

Vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy that is characterized by capillary fragility resulting in bruising and hemorrhaging, inflammation of the gums, loosening of the teeth, anemia and general debility that can lead to death. The RDA for adults 15 years and older is 60 mg; for pregnant women, 70 mg; and for lactating women in the first six months, 95 mg decreasing to 90 mg for the second six months. There may be increased vitamin C requirements for people taking estrogens, oral contraceptives, barbiturates, tetracyclines, aspirin and for cigarette smokers. Large doses of vitamin C can interfere with many laboratory tests. Side effects from large doses include nausea, vomiting, heartburn, abdominal cramps, headache and diarrhea.

Diets containing 200mg or more of vitamin C from fruits and vegetables are associated with a lower cancer risk, particularly for cancers of the colon, lung, mouth, esophagus and stomach. The consumption of dietary supplements have not been shown to have the same effect. It may block the formation of N-nitrosamines, cancer-causing agents from certain foods. Ascorbic acid alone does not appear to prevent heart disease, however the combined use with vitamin E may reduce the risk of heart disease

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Fat soluble vitamins are found in meats, liver, dairy, egg yolks, vegetable seed oils, and leafy green vegetables. Some foods such as milk and margarine are artificially fortified with vitamins A and D. These vitamins are metabolized along with fat in the body and require fat for absorption in the gut. The fat-soluble vitamins may be stored in large amounts, and this gives them the potential to cause toxicity if consumed in high amounts. Deficiencies are rare in adults but may be seen in children. Megadosing of fat soluable vitamins, except where indicated by a medical professional, is potentially dangerous and should be avoided. Two of the fat-soluble vitamins, A and D, have hormone like actions, causing specific cells to increase or decrease the expression of certain genes.

Vitamin A (retinol) plays a vital role in the functioning of the retina, growth and maturation of the cells lining the inner and outer surfaces of the body (the epithelial cells), growth of bone, reproduction and embryonic development. Several compounds have vitamin A activity and they are referred to as retinoids. They function with certain carotenoids to protect against the development of certain cancers and to enhance immune function. Carotenoids are substances that are consumed in the diet, some of which are converted to vitamin A. They may also have antioxidant activity.

Deficiency

Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness, a condition in which vision is impaired in dim light. Dryness and ulceration of the eyes, skin eruptions and dryness, abnormal cells of the mucous membranes, urinary stones, and impaired taste and smell also characterize the deficiency. Many children in developing countries have irreversible blindness resulting from vitamin A deficiency. In the US, it occurs more commonly in chronic diseases that affect fat absorption such as pancreatic insufficiency and portal cirrhosis, or following removal of a portion of the stomach. Vitamin A is stored in several sites in the body, so when a deficiency occurs, supplements must be given long enough for these stores to be replenished

 

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FOWL POX ( nature , signs & treatment )

Fowl Pox :

is a viral disease characterized by formation of skin lesions .
Other form cause lesions in the mouth and upper respiratory tract.

Cause :

Fowl pox virus infects birds of both sexes, of all ages and breeds.

Spread by:

-direct contact .
-mechanical spread of virus to the injured skin.
-Mosquitoes.

Symptoms:

1-Skin form, lesions appear on the unfeathered skin of the head, neck, comb, wattles, eyelids, legs, and feet. The lesions on the head, combs, and wattles are sually art-like (nodular) in appearance, and yellow to dark brown in colour.

2-Diphtheritic form (wet form), small white nodules are observed in upper respiratory and digestive tracts. These nodules merge together to form raised-yellow white cheesy patches.

Diagnos :

is Wart-like lesions of the head particularly of he comb and around the eyes, or yellow cheesy esions in the larynx and adjacent trachea on ostmortem, are diagnostic of fowl pox.

Treatment :

Tettracycline is the drug of choice in pox virus infection.
In small flock , remove skin lesions and apply tr. Iodine

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