Horse origins
The ancient ancestors of the horse were small many-toed animals that then evolved one toe to ecame a hoof. Two million years ago the horse developed into Equus species in North America from which it spread to the old world and South America across the land bridges.
Then there was more general migration and diversification, They developed into a very mobile animal that uses speed, bucking and kicking to escape predators. The horse is a panic species!
Of the 5 main domestic animal species, the horse was the last to be domesticated. It is least affected by human manipulation and artificial selection.
The horse was first used by man for food, then transport, riding for military use, then for draft power and transport, and finally for recreational riding which is a major use today.
It was thought that Mongolian tribes were first to domesticate the horse and by 1500 BC different types of horse were evolving.
The problem was to find out where this happened. Research in 2009 has confirmed that the Botai culture in Kazakhstan were using horses for for transport and milking them between 3700BC and 3100BC.
Prezewalski horses are still found in that area as the last survivor of the early horse.
Uses
The horse still provides a range of services for humans:
Transport - they carry people in both war and peace.
Power - they pull loads and farm implements.
Meat - horse flesh is popular in many cultures.
Milk. Mares milk still supports families in some cultures.
Hides and skins are still valuable.
Hair from mains and tails is still in demand.
Entertainment - racing and betting.
Sport and competition.
Ceremonial uses.
The pleasure in ownership of a noble animal for leisure.
Horse senses
Sight
The horse has keen sensory perception developed from its evolution and it has one of the largest eyes of any modern animal.
It has a special light intensifying device which reflects light back on to the retina, giving good vision in poor light. In the wild horses are active at dawn and dusk.
The eye structure allows it to see the slightest movement so will panic easily by something on the periphery of its vision.
Having binocular vision in front of 60-70 means the horse needs to move the head to see where it is going. It can only focus fully for a short distance ahead - about 2m.
This is a problem in jumping - it focuses then must remember and trust its memory about the object it has seen.
Horses have a wide monocular (panoramic) view of the horizon and can see about 340-360 around it.
As the eyes are on the sides of its head, the horse does not normally see objects in depth. It sees them like we do with one eye closed. It sees them with less detail than humans but is more sensitive to movement.
The eyes are perfectly placed for cropping pasture, which it does this for half its life!
The horse's visual area is more towards the ground than the sky but it can raise its head quickly and focus on objects at various distances away.
Colour vision is still debated. Some work shows the horse can see colour starting from yellow, green, blue and red in that order.
A horse needs time to adjust vision between light and dark which is worth remembering when loading horses from bright light into dark transport vehicles.
The horse has a blind spot behind its head which increases when the head is lifted. So it's important to allow the horse to move its head to see objects in its way.
Horses are generally reluctant to enter dark enclosures but quieten down when in there and feel safe looking out into the light. Horses can often be blindfolded to quieten them.
Don't look a strange horse in the eye as it's a threatening pose.
A horse will go in the direction it is looking so point it correctly.
Hearing
Horses have a broader range of hearing than humans and can hear up to 25,000 cycles per second (cps) and have acute hearing in the high and low frequencies.
Humans have noticed horses' early response to earthquake vibrations.
Horses have 16 muscles that control the ears which they can swivel 180 degrees.
When ears laid fully back this cuts their hearing severely.
Horses are alert at all times except in deep sleep which only occurs in very short spells.
Smell
Smell is well developed in the horse and this is why wild horses are difficult to stalk except upwind.
The horse has a Vomeronasal organ (VNO) and the Flehmen response is very obvious in stallions sniffing mares on heat.
Horses meet nose to nose and smell each other.
They are very sensitive to smells in their environment, e.g. dung, dirty troughs, musty feed, bad water and certain plants.
Smell is very important in feed selection.
Taste
Horses are attracted by sweetness and sugar so molasses, water melon rind, peaches and beer are all relished.
They (especially foals) reject salty, sour and bitter tastes at about the same level of acceptance as humans.
Touch
Touch is one of the most acutely developed senses in the horse.
They can sense a fly landing on any part of their body through their coat and flick it off.
Horses are "inter-pressure" so when you apply pressure and move into the horse you will get reverse response.
Horses push and barge each other in physical contact to communicate. You see this in mares and oals interacting.
Horses respond to touch all over the body but especially around the head so ears and eyes are especially sensitive areas. They don't like their ears pulled.
The upper lip and muzzle are very sensitive to tactile stimulus, and are equivalent to our fingers.
The whiskers that grow from the muzzle and around the eyes in the horse are like an insect's antennae. They are especially useful in low light conditions when the horse is nosing around. You should not cut them off!
Touch plays a major role in their social life and riders use it to signal intentions to the horse.
So when leading a horse - be positive.
Horses have a "point of balance" as described for cattle behind shoulder and in centre of head.
Memory
Horses have very good long-term memory which is useful for an animal that grazes over a large territory.
It can be seen when a horse will remember a place where it got a fright and will continually shy at that place for years afterwards.
But its memory can be variable and reinforcement in training is important.
A horse will learn nothing when under stress - as the survival urge will blank out memory.
Swimming
Horses are strong swimmers when forced to enter deep water.
They swim with a dog-paddle action.
In training there is no problem for a fit horse to swim around a pool for 30 minutes.
Problems with teeth
Cheek teeth in the horse may become unevenly worn so they don't grind feed efficiently and can cause ulcers on the tongue.
The signs of this include dropping feed from the mouth while chewing, bulging of the cheeks caused by wads of food becoming impacted between the teeth and cheek, and/or green staining around the outh caused by drooling of saliva.
Overgrown edges on cheek teeth are common in elderly ponies and horses.
Treatment is by rasping the sharp edges and it takes a trained person like a veterinarian or a horse dentist to do this effectively.
To prevent problems, it's wise to have the cheek teeth of ponies and horses rasped regularly, perhaps once a year or so by a veterinarian or horse dentist.
Periodontal disease can affect cheek teeth. It's caused by infections of the gum and supporting structures around the cheek-teeth roots.
In severe cases the bone becomes swollen and sore, then the animal is reluctant to chew its feed and it gets thin.
If you suspect any problems, veterinary care is needed to avoid behavioural and welfare problems.
Social behaviour
The horse is a herd animal with a clearly defined hierarchy.
Some horses may roam on their own, but horses in the wild are found in "bands" ranging from 4 to 10 individuals. Bigger groups of up to 20 may occur.
Usually a group is based on a family with one or two mares and their offspring from the last 2-3 years. Maybe there’s an extra young male hanger-on.
The females in the group are the decision makers and the male or males that accompany them act as guardians rather than leaders.
There seems to be a shifting system of dominance relationships among members of the band. At ifferent times, the dominance order will be different depending on the circumstances and is not a rigid and formal dominance setup.
Horses develop tight relationships with other individuals, especially close relatives, and these can complicate the overall social order.
This special relationship between individuals can be seen with horses kept in housed groups or in small paddocks. You'll see all sorts of idiosyncratic preferences for particular companions and dislike of others.
Bachelor males usually form small groups of 4 to 8 individuals. They stay alone until mating time, when some start to try and break into an established harem to steal a mating when the stallion is otherwise engaged.
You can also find solitary males and solitary females, and bands of non-breeding juveniles.
A stallion as the alpha male may appear to be the herd leader at mating time when they form a harem of mares, but the mares are still important decision makers as to where the herd grazes.
A stallion may gather some new mares to his harem depending on his dominance in the territory.
The alpha female shows her real power in doling out discipline to the adolescent males. Subordinate males may also act as security guards in the harem.
As survival is based on flight rather then fight, vigilance by all animals in the group is important.
The social order is sorted out by gestures - ears laid back and teeth bared, and individuals may resort to nipping others with their teeth.
Severe biting and kicking with hind legs in unison is used for more serious sorting out of social problems.
Stallions fight by rising up, using their front feet to paw the opponent, using the neck to knock an opponent down together with severe biting. They also use their back feet either singly or together for kicking.
Mutual nibbling or grooming is the way horses reinforce social ranking. They do this to their handlers too.
Juvenile horses move out or are forced out of the main band and disperse. Females may return to join their old band when they are mature. The chances are by then the alpha male (their father) has changed, so inbreeding is kept to a minimum. The herd leader may still be one of their relatives however.
Stallions tend to ignore their own fillies when in heat and concentrate on the mares, this being nature's way to reduce inbreeding.
A male may join a solitary female and start a new band, so there will be no genetic association between them.
Feral horses in New Zealand
Social behaviour
Kaimanawa Wild Horses. Photo copyright Wendy Brewer.
Feral herds are the best place to study basic horse behaviour, because there are sufficient numbers of animals and a big enough territory to appreciate the role an individual horse has in the herd hierarchy.
So many problems of individual horses isolated from their kind is because owners forget horses are social animals.
The importance of social behaviour can be seen in New Zealand in the Kaimanawa herd of feral horses which roams an area of the North Island high central plateau (tussock country), which is mainly out of bounds to the public as it's used for military training.
These horses originated from escaped animals and deliberate releases from sheep stations in the area in the 1860s, supplemented by miliary horses from the local military camp in 1941 to reduce the risk of disease spread (strangles). An Arab stallion was released into the herd in the 1960s to add his contribution to the mixed genepool.
Numbers increased rapidly over the years and in the 1990s the Department of Conservation required the herd to be reduced and maintained around 500 animals to protect the fragile high country environment.
Culled horses are now offered for sale to the public and the "Kaimanawa Wild Horse Welfare Trust Inc" has been established to provide information on the 'breed', especially on care and welfare of purchased animals.
Stallion behaviour
The pictures show the well-defined stages in a confrontation between young stallions to determine social order, rather than a fight to the death for the position of alpha herd leader.
1. Meeting and greeting
2. Moving closer
3. Starting to rear and move in for the first contact
4. The full on fight
5. Fight over - agreement reached
Female discipline of teenagers
Studies by Monty Roberts and others have shown the way mares discipline young males They chase them out of the band and won't let them back in until the females think they are ready.
This signalling is done by an alpha mare that goes out to the edge of the band and turns her hindquarters to the males who are looking for a signal to re-enter.
When the mare decides the young male has done his penance, she goes to meet him nose-to-nose and he follows her back into the band.
Mares have very strong natures and this is a reason why they are preferred as poly ponies. They can easily be trained to barge into other horses and be competitive.
Communication
Signals used by horses to communicate can be:
Visual - signals using all parts of the body.
Acoustic - sound
Tactile - touch
Chemical - smells
All combinations of these used in different circumstances.
Visual signals
There's a wide range of visual signals in the horse using most parts of the body.
Because of acute vision, horses can pick up slight changes in these signals.
They are associated with other body signals - all interacting.
Facial signals
Snapping
Opening and shutting the mouth, sometimes making teeth contact.
Used a lot by foals to denote submission to the mare.
It's a stylised grooming signal.
Biting mood
Aggressive mood with clear intention to bite.
Jaws and teeth held open.
Teeth fully exposed.
Stiff lips
This is opposed to soft lips which shows relaxation.
Shows tension but less violent.
Flehmen response
Top lip curled up and head raised high.
Characteristic of stallions smelling mare's genitals and urine.
Can be seen in mares smelling other mare's urine.
Nostrils
Can be wrinkled showing disgust.
Are flared in excitement or fear.
Eyes
Closed in pain or when exhausted.
Open wide in fear.
Shows whites of eyes when angry or terrified.
Half closed in peaceful relaxation or submission.
Neck signals
Head shake
Sideways shake suggesting stress.
Sharp upwards head toss showing annoyance.
Head jerk - upwards and backwards showing annoyance.
Head bobbing
Ducks head down and back repeatedly.
Used to increase range of vision.
Head wobble
Nose moves with top of head still.
Indicates horse is ready for action
Head thrust and lunge
Pushes head forward in assertive move.
Threat or indication of aggression.
The next action will be biting.
Nose nudge
Attention seeking.Warning to take notice of me.
Head snaking.
Used by stallion to round up mares.
Side to side wobble.
Biting threats often accompany it.
Head weaving
Common in boxed horses with little mental stimulation.
Like seen in bored caged birds.
Same problem in horse - boredom.
Head circling
Horse stands making circular neck movements.
Shows intense stress.
Found in boxed horses with no mental stimulation.
Ear signals
Pricked - shows alertness
Horse is paying attention
Airplane ears - held out to the side with openings downwards.Horse is psychologically low and has lost interest in things.
Drooped - horse is dozy or in pain. Showing feelings or inferiority.
Drooped backwards - seen in ridden horse.Showing submission to rider. Sign of brutal owner. Mare approaches stallion often in this pose.
Twitching and flicking. Sign of a stressed horse. Sign of confusion.
Pinned ears - flattened back. Shows aggression. Provides protection when fighting
Tail signals
Tail high.
Sign of excitement.
Sign of intention to play among young horses.
Seen when stallion approaches mare.
Shown by mare when ready for service - hold tail to the side.
Tail low
Sign of submission
Sign of exhaustion
Sign of illness
Tail straight out
Seen in very aggressive horse. Stallions ready for battle
Swishing tail
First sideways then up and down.
Shows horse is ill at ease, anxious or confused.
Increased power of side flick in real rage.
Flicked high in air and slapped down hard is warning that kicking will follow.
Sound signals
Snort
Sign of anxiety
Horse sensing danger
Squeal
Defensive signal.
Don't push me signal.
Varies in intensity denoting degree of concern.
Often when horse craves company or has lost a companion.
Greeting nicker
Low pitched and guttural.
A salutation.
Courtship nicker
Long low pitched nicker.
Mares do this when stallion approaches.
Stallions have personalised courtship nickers.
Maternal nicker
Soft and barely audible to humans.
Mare's message to foal
Neigh and whinny
Starts as a squeal and ends as a nicker.
The loudest and longest call.
Isolated horse uses it for security like wolf howl.
It's a request for information rather than alarm.
Roar
Shows intense rage of a fighting stallion.
Contains a fair element of fear too.
Blow
Sign of well-being.
An enquiry sound - what's this?
Remove dust from nose when feeding.
Grunt or groan
Sign of exhaustion - when overloading pack horse.
Sign of excess exertion.
Boredom
Hoof stamping/kicking
These sound can be heard over long distances.
Seen in stressed or bored horses in stables.
Some horses kick the walls in boredom.
Flatus
Can be slow release of gas from anus when horse is relaxed.
Or a short sharp burst of wind when the horse is under tension when pulling load or in fear or stress.
Touch signals
These are a very common means of communication.
Seen when horses meet - nose to nose.
Mares use nudges to direct foals to udder and away from it.
Foals use it to warn the mare they are going to suckle the udder.
Handlers use it, along with the voice to warn a horse of where they are.
Aggression is all about tactile communication - pushing and biting.
Touch is used by riders to direct the horse.
Horses prefer to travel in floats facing the rear, although they are seldom moved this way. It seems that when the vehicle slows they prefer to take pressure on their rears rather than with their chests.
Chemical communication
Horses have an excellent sense of smell.
It's important in meeting and greeting, they smell noses, breath, flanks and genital area.
Smelling continues to dung and urine.
Smell is used in foal recognition by the mare as well as visual clues.
The foal to locate the udder using smell.
Sleep
Horses need to sleep, and most is done standing but they do sleep lying down.
They drowse during the day but truly sleep at night.
Their sleep cycle is short - 15 mins sleep then 45 mins awake.
A horse that is forced to stand continuously, e.g. on long air flights, will be sleep deprived so must be rested on arrival.
Group behaviour affects sleep. Dominant animals lie down first and set the pattern.
Young horses need more sleep than the old.
Horses prefer to lie on dry earth or sand and not cold wet areas.
Grooming and body care
Horses like to roll in soft earth or sand, especially after exercise and when hot and sweaty.
They scratch their own bodies with their hooves, teeth and lips.
There is always concern over the welfare of horses covered in summer. Covered horses are very visual for the public and people assume the horse will be stressed in the heat.
Covered horses need regular checking as external parasites can build up under the cover.
Horses sweat over their bodies, so hosing down and grooming after exercise is much appreciated by the horse.
Grazing behaviour and elimination.
Horses ruin pastures faster than any other animal.
The can graze much closer than ruminants as they have both top and bottom teeth.
They overgraze areas that end up like lawns, and dung in other areas which they will not graze because of the smell.
Pastures under continual grazing become "horse sick" - i.e. heavily contaminated with internal parasites and the dunging areas grow weeds.
Horses tend to dung and urinate on areas where other horses have done the same as it's an important means of communication. Stallions regularly dung and urinate where mares have done so.
Horses (especially feral horses) get a lot of information from dung and urine heaps about what is going on in the territory.
Horses eat for long periods averaging about 12 hours a day and when feed is short they'll graze for up to 18 hours.
Overfeeding is a major problem leading to "founder of the foot" causing lameness and general obesity.
But with horses kept on bare paddocks all day and yarded at night to control their feed intake, boredom can become a problem leading to other behavioural issues.
Horses dung every 3-4 hours and can defaecate while moving but have to stop to urinate as this requires muscle relaxation of the pelvis and hind legs.
Horses can be trained to urinate by whistling (a conditioned response). When you see the horse urinating naturally, start to whistle so it will build an association between the whistle and the behaviour.
With continual reinforcement the horse will learn to urinate on the signal.
Feeding and Digestion
Horses are herbivores like cattle but are not ruminants.
They cannot eat as quickly as ruminants that regurgitate their feed for further processing, so horses spend most of their day grazing.
They eat a wide range of pasture plants and weeds. They don't like large quantities of lush legumes and need regular roughage to avoid digestive upsets.
They digest their fibre in the colon, hence methane and carbon dioxide are passed out through the anus.
Horses have a very mobile top lip that allows close cropping of pasture whereas the cow uses its long prehensile tongue.
Unlike ruminants, horses have upper and lower incisors so they can nip off grass very short like a well-mown lawn.
When starved horses will eat mud and old dung and will ring-bark trees.
Don't let them have access to silage bales as they'll chew the plastic wrap.
The main digestive disorder is colic and it can be very hazardous for the horse and handler, especially if the horse gets down in a box. Get it outside and keep it walking hoping it will clear some wind. Get urgent veterinary help.
Reproduction
Puberty in horses varies a lot with breed and it can occur from 8-24 months.
Well-fed horses usually reach puberty at around 12 months, but feral horses would be much later.
The mare's oestrous cycle is stimulated by increasing daylight so she is sexually active in spring and early summer.
She comes into heat 4-18 days after foaling so the foal can be in a dangerous situation from the stallion wanting to mate her during this period in the wild.
A mare is pregnant for 11 months and if not mated she will cycle every 3 weeks and she is on heat for 5-15 days.
Sometimes you can get prolonged oestrus for several weeks (nymphomania) and it can be a real nuisance to the handlers.
Heat signs
Plenty of vocalisation - especially if she sees other horses.
Frequent stopping to urinate.
Standing with hind legs parted and in a crouch with tail held up.
Swollen vulva.
Viscous vaginal fluid running from the vulva.
Everting the vulva to expose the clitoris - called "clitoral flashing" or "winking" Restless - always looking for the company of other horses.
Tail twitching.
Stud mares are tested for standing oestrus using a "teaser" or small pony stallion that is too small to mate the mare. But don't believe that as some get very cunning!
Mares not quite right on heat are happy to meet the stallion, but will squeal, kick and bite him when he tries to mount. They are best tested over a gate to prevent injury to both parties.
A mare right on heat will stand firm when the stallion mounts and lean back to take his weight.
After mating the stallion will stand around resting and the mare may come and try to stimulate him again.
Hand mating can be a dangerous time for the handlers as there is always the risk of being kicked, stood on or bitten. Full protective clothing including head protection body armour and safety boots should be worn and strangers should be kept away.
Mating is best done outside but if it is done indoors, make sure the roof is high enough so the mounted stallion does not injure his head on the roof beams. This has happened.
Birth behaviour
Mares generally foal rapidly. First comes the initial stage when she prepares a birth site and gets ready to lie down. Then comes the delivery stage with the foal's head and front legs first like a diver, which is usually over in about 15 minutes.
The foal is usually delivered with the mare resting and the membranes are burst when the foal hits the ground.
So if there are delays in this procedure, which usually means problems, get veterinary attention urgently.
There are more difficult births in thoroughbreds than other horse breeds/types.
The mare should get up immediately and lick and chew the membranes, lessening the chances of the foal smothering. But an exhausted mare may not do this and the foal can be smothered.
The mare should void the afterbirth in an hour and it's important to check this to avoid uterine infections.
Bonding is done by the mare licking the foal, and it can spend several hours doing this. Licking helps blood circulation and warming the foal.
Young mares (first time mothers) may strike the foal with their front feet. This may be a reaction to get it to stand and be ready to move off, to avoid predators being attracted by the birth site and afterbirth.
About 80% of mares foal at night, peaking around midnight.
A foal is usually on its feet in about 15 minutes.
The foal's approach to the udder is important. It uses its long neck to avoid kicks and seeks out a warm area of bare skin where there should be a teat.
Good mares will stand and encourage teat seeking by nuzzling the foal's rear end and genital area.
Poor mares will keep moving and looking at the foal, preventing it getting round to her udder for a suck. It's vital that the foal has colostrum in the first 6-8 hours.
A foal should suck within 30 mins of birth. It then sucks at frequent intervals of 50-75 times in 24 hours in the early weeks of life.
Suckling lasts from 15 seconds to 2 minutes as the foal stands with legs apart and tail raised. It keeps well tucked in touching the mare's side.
After the mare and foal move away from the birth site, the foal keeps in physical contact bumping the mare as they go along.
Bonding is rapid at birth (within 2 hours) but foals can be fostered on to mares for up to 3-4 days.
But the success of this depends on the nature of the mare and some mares will not have any other foal but her own. The skin of a dead foal is often tied on to a foster foal to fool the mare.
Early handling
There are great benefits from handling and fondling foals soon after birth so they associate humans with positive experiences. They need to see you as part of their environment and not as a threat.
But some horse experts say you can overdo this so care is needed. The danger is that the foal may end up being so friendly (and cocky) that it will be more difficult to dominate later. The behaviour developed early you’ll see later as foals are quick learners and remember.
In the first few days just get the foal familiar with people.
Experts suggest 3 weeks of age is early enough to start handling the foal and get this well established before 6 weeks of age.
Start training by removing the foal from the mare for a few hours, speaking quietly and gently while encircling its neck with your arms. Release it only when it has relaxed and is comfortable with your actions.
Fit a soft leather halter and lead the foal when the mare is led. The foal should never be driven. It must learn to come forward “off pressure” and this is taught with a rope around it’s rear end.
Brush the foal, handle it often and introduce it to a variety of noises.
From 3 months old, halter it regularly and lead it around vehicles, along farm tracks, etc, and get it used to different situations and especially noises.
Later training is done on the long rein, i.e. "lunging" to build up fitness and to learn voice commands.
Thoroughbred trainers reckon a total of 20 days training between 3 weeks and a 12 months old is enough. Training need not be repetitive and more than 3 days in a row is too much.
Some suggest Lesson 1 at 3 weeks, Handled again at 10 weeks and then 3 training sessions before weaning which covers yearlings coming up to sale time. They need to accept being led, bridled, covered, loading on and off floats, standing on their own in a box and walking in and out of doorways.
Weight bearing should be delayed till the horse is mature, usually after 2 years old.
Take plenty of opportunity to introduce the young horse to different experiences.
Correct mouthing is critical - use the correct bit to prevent soreness."Breaking" horses is out - "gentling" is in. There are many sources of information on this subject now.
Training principles
Remember horses are a panic species - they respond to stress or fear by flight.
They use speed, bucking and kicking and biting to escape threats. The principle of modern schooling or gentling is to prevent the horse escaping from handler so it learns to accept human contact as providing safety and security.
Horses are very teachable and have a considerable capacity to learn.
But work within the animal's repertoire of ability. A horse will cannot learn anything if it's incapable of doing it.
Horses have a good memory but do hot have the ability to reason. They lack initiative but are not dumb. They rely heavily on innate behaviour.
They cannot cope well in new and novel situations. They cannot solve problems that go beyond simple associations or limited choices.
Recognise the temperament of the horse and this will dictate your approach. Your first lessons will indicate how the temperament is going to affect progress, and you may have to rethink certain actions.
Horses are right or left handed showing side preferences and brain lateralisation.
In training do not scare the horse as this will set up flight responses.
Remember punishment only suppresses behaviour: it does not eliminate it.
Punishment incorrectly given, or given to excess makes behaviour worse as the horse's sensitivity is reduced.
"Reward training" is the simplest and best method, but reward must follow the correct and required action immediately. After a very short delay the association is lost.
Rewards may include a pat on the neck, rest, food, or being able to see new and interesting things.
In "gentling" a wild horse, handlers often start with a "carrot stick" which is a long stick with a leather thong on the end, which they use to rub the horse starting at the rear end. This imitates the feeling of mutual grooming, and the horse will enjoy this.
Then the trainer moves up along the back to the shoulder, and finally to the head and nose. If you touch the head too early, all will be lost and you'll have to start again.
Use "rewards" intermittently and do not reward for every correct response.
Too much handling may lead to boredom and too little can produce a scared or reluctant horse.
The trainer needs to be smarter than the horse. Problems mostly arise from what the trainer did wrong and not the animal.
Break up the tasks to be learned into simple, basic steps and work from the known to the unknown.
Always be consistent.
The Monty Robert's principle (also attributed to many other trainers) is to drive the horse around a circular pen which is an alien territory for the horse, and then letting it come to you for security - when you are ready and want to let it come into your human space.
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